General Knowledge

Largest Ocean - Pacific Ocean

2011-07-17T02:06:00.000-07:00

The pacific ocean is the largest ocean in the world. It covers nearly 1/3 of the earth's surface. It is also the deepest ocean on the earth. The pacific ocean lies between Asia and Australia on the west and North and South America on the East. Pacific ocean is rich in natural resources and marine life.
The Pacific's deepest parts are the ocean trenches. These trenches are long,narrow, steep and very deep holes at the bottom of the ocean. The deepest trench is the Mariana trench. The deepth of this trench is more than the hight of Mt.Everest.
There are many islands in the Pacific ocean like Taiwan, Indonesia, Japan and New Zealand. Other islands have risen from the floor of the ocean. Some of them were from the volcanoes. The islands were built over thousands of years by the lava that comes out of the volcanoes. The Hawaiian islands are from volcanoes.

What are Glaciers?

2011-07-17T01:54:00.000-07:00

In high mountains there are places that are packed with ice. These ice packs are called 'Glaciers' these resemble gaint frozen rivers. Many thousands of years ago most of the Earth's surface was covered with moving glaciers.
It takes a very long time to make a glacier. First, snow falls on the mountains. It collects year after year, until there is a thick layer called a snow field.
During summer months the snow field melts and sinks into the snow below it. There it freezes and forms a layer of ice. This happens year after year, until most of the snow field is converted to ice. The snowfield is now a glacier.
The snow and ice ina glacier can become very thick and heavy. The glacier then begins to actually move under its own weight and creeps down the mountain valley. It has now become a valley glacier.
The valley glacier moves slowly but with enormous force. As it moves, it scrapes the slides of the mountain and tears off pieces of it. Sometimes it tears off chunks as big as a house. As the glacier moves down warmer regions, the water melts and becomes source of water for rivers and lakes.

Sesame

2011-05-17T02:41:00.001-07:00

Sesame seeds have a nutty taste and a delicate, almost invisible crunch. Depending on the variety, they can be white, yellow, black or red. Sesame seeds are valued for their oil, which is very resistant to rancidity. These seeds were thought to have first originated in India. From India Sesame seeds were introduced to West Asia, Africa and Asia. Currently, the largest commercial producers of sesame seeds are India, China and Mexico.

When buying sesame seeds, ensure they bear no traces of moisture, unhulled sesame seeds can be stored in an airtight container in a cool, dark, dry place. Once the seeds are hulled, they are more prone to rancidity; so store them in a freezer.

Sesame seeds are a good source of copper and manganese. They are also a good source of calcium, iron dietary fiber and monounsaturated fats.

Sesame seeds contain two unique substances sesamin and sesamolin. These belong to the group of special beneficial fibers called lignans, which are said to have a cholesterol-lowering effect in humans. Sesamin has also been found to protect the liver from oxidative damage.

Microbes under the sea.

2010-04-20T22:42:00.001-07:00

The ocean depths are home to myriad species of microbes, mostly hard to see but including spaghetti-like bacteria that form whitish mats the size of Greece on the floor of the pacific, scientists said.

The survey, part of a 10-year census of marine life turned up hosts of unknown microbes, tiny zooplankton, crustaceans, worms, burrowers and larvae, some of them looking like extras in a science fiction movie and under-pinning all like in the seas.

In no other realm of ocean life has the magnitude of census discovery been as extensive as in the world of microbes. Said Mitch Sogin of the Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, head of the marine microbe census. The census estimated there were a mind boggling "nonillion" individual microbial cells in the oceans, weighing as much as 240 billion African elephants, the biggest land animal.

Getting a better idea of microbes, the hidden majority that makes up 50-90% of biomass in the seas, will give a benchmark for understanding future shifts in the oceans, perhaps linked to climate change or pollution.

Among the biggest masses of life on the planet are the carpets on the seabed formed by giant multi-cellular bacteria that look like thin strands of spaghetti. They feed on hydrogen sulphide in oxygen starved waters in a band off Peru and Chile.

Courtesy : Times of India, Chennai times, 20/04/2010

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MEAT LOAF - Popular U.S food

2010-01-26T20:20:00.000-08:00

A highly versatile and popular food, especially in the U.S made from ground meat mixed with seasonings (traditionally beef, but veal, pork or lamb may be added), it gets its name and shape by being baked in a tin shaped like a loaf of bread. Onions, green peppers and spices provide the seasoning along with salt and pepper: barbeque sauce is also a popular additive. Cereals, eggs, cheese, breadcrumbs may also be included to help make it more dough-like and help in binding the meat together. Usually served as a main course with sauce or relish to accompany it; the slices can be eaten either warm or cold.

PELMENI - A russian traditional food

2010-01-26T20:17:00.000-08:00

One of the oldest and well-known Russian traditional foods, pelmeni is also known as “Siberian dumpling” because of their supposed Siberian origin.

Pelmeni keeps well, so much so that they were known as the hunter’s preserved meal. Pelmeni are dumplings with a filling of ground beef and pork mixed with minced onion and salt. They are usually kept frozen till ready to be eaten when they are thrown into boiling, salted water and cooked till the pelmeni float to the surface.

Pelmeni can be found in any Russian supermarket’s freezer section, though many Russian families consider it a privilege to make it by hand.

About Woodpeckers

2010-01-26T20:01:00.000-08:00

WOODPECKERS are real tree-dwellers, where they dig for insects and grubs. The loud drumming made by the beak is a male’s warning to other males, and also an invitation to a female. A hole is bored in a tree for a nest. Common in Europe are the Lesser Spotted (no larger than a sparrow), the Great Spotted and the Green Woodpeckers. The largest European species is the Black Woodpecker, as big as a crow. Largest of all is the Ivory-billed Woodpecker of Mexico, fifty centimeters long. Some gaudily coloured birds related to woodpeckers are the toucans of South America, which have enormous beaks and look top-heavy. In fact the beak is quite light, and a toucan can hold and play with a grape or an egg without damaging it.

Parrots - Popular talking birds

2010-01-26T19:58:00.000-08:00

Parrots make popular pets, especially the talking kinds, like the African Grey Parrot. A number of smaller species, called lovebirds, keep together in pairs, even in cages. The brilliantly coloured parrots of South America, called macaws, are noisy, screaming birds. So are the white, crested cockatoos of Australia. But the little green budgerigar is aboriginal for good bird. The Kea a New Zealand parrot, was once unpopular as it used to attack sheep, tearing at their backs to eat the flesh.

TORTOISES AND TURTLES

2009-12-14T08:52:00.000-08:00

TORTOISES AND TURTLES are unique among animals, having their whole bodies enclosed in a bony box. This is built from the rib cage which grows and joins up outside the limbs. The earliest tortoise show separate ribs but even these are already flattened as if about to join together. This peculiarity goes back even before the dinosaurs, so that chelonians (the name of the order to which tortoises and turtles belong are the oldest group of reptiles. They even have the oldest individuals on earth today- the giant tortoises which can live to a hundred and fifty years or more.

Chelonians are of three kinds-tortoises, turtles and terrapins. Tortoises are land reptiles with domed shells and stumpy legs. They move about clumsily and feed mostly on plants and fruit. The largest are the giant tortoises of the Galapagos Islands in the Pacific, and the Aldabra Islands in the Indian Ocean. They can weigh up to 550 kilograms and measure almost two meters in length. Tortoises sold in shops as pets come from the Mediterranean countries, and have been known to live up to a hundred years. Eggs are laid in the ground and left to hatch in the sun.
Turtles are sea-going chelonians, with flatter shells than tortoises and more paddle – like feet for swimming. At night the females come ashore on some lonely tropical beach where there is sand. They dig pits in which up to 150 eggs may be laid. These are covered up and the mother then returns to the sea. Later the babies hatch out, struggle to the surface, then make as fast as they can for the water. On the way many are caught by the waiting sea-birds. Because turtles are also caught for food and their eggs dug up, some are now becoming rare.

One or two countries do protect turtles by fencing off some of the beaches where they lay their eggs, later collecting the young and taking them out to sea where they will be safe to grow up. The largest turtles, up to 400 kilograms and one and a half meters long, is the Leathery Turtle. The Green Turtle is the species usually caught for making turtle soup, and the Hawksbill Turtle for its shell, called tortoiseshell. Terrapin is an American Indian name for freshwater tortoises which swim in rivers and marshes, catching fish and water animals. They spend hours basking in the sun at the waterside, but dive in at any sign of danger.

REPTILES

2009-12-14T08:46:00.000-08:00

Reptiles are air-breathing vertebrates which have limbs (except snakes and some lizards), are cold-blooded and have horny covering of scales or horny plates. There are about 3,000 species. The four orders of modern reptiles are the crocodiles and alligators, tortoises and turtles, snakes and lizards and the Tuatara.

The last-named order means break headed, and the Tuatara, which is a Maori name, is the only survivor of it. Looking rather like a lizard with a beaked face it lives on some of the lonely islands off the coast of New Zealand. It is truly a precious living fossil, since this reptile order goes back to the time of the dinosaurs. The Tuatara seems to be slow in everything it does, even to its movements. It lives in underground burrows, often in company with a sea-bird, a species of petrel. The reptile sleeps there by night and the bird by day. The eggs have a long incubation period and it is sometimes as much as eighteen months before the young hatch out.

HYDROPHYTES

2009-12-14T08:44:00.000-08:00

These are plants which grow in or near water and are adapted according to whether they live on the surface, or are submerged, or grow in the mud at the edge of the water.Some are a combination of all these and have several different types of leaves. Some hydrophytes (for example water lily) are anchored to the bottom by roots, and send up leaves on long stems until they reach the surface, when they unfold and spread out. The giant water lily (Victoria regia) is an extreme example of this. The flowers too come up on a long stem and open out above the water.

Some water plants are not rooted to the bottom and merely float on the surface (for example duckweed) or under the surface (for example bladderwort). Such water plants can only live in still waters but some submerged plants are anchored to the bottom by roots and produce long growth with small leaves and these are better adapted to life in running water. The leaves of most water plants have large air cavities in them to act as ‘water wings’, and some produce large bladder-like swellings for the same purpose(for example water hyacinth).

The water crowfoot is amphibious, that is it can live both in water and at the edge in the damp mud. It has surface leaves which are flat and large compared to the submerged leaves which, when living in water, are finely divided with narrow lobes. These smaller leaves disappear if the water level drops and the plants are left at the edge.

ANTIBIOTICS AND VIRUSES

2009-12-14T08:40:00.000-08:00

Some tiny plant organisms produce substances which are capable of killing bacteria, and penicillin and streptomycin are two examples of these. The organisms producing these useful antibiotics are in fact fungi, and are cultivated by man in order to obtain large quantities for treating diseases. Viruses are organisms which are very much smaller even than bacteria and very little is known about them. They seem to be on the borderline between the living and non-living although they do have the ability to increase and spread. They cause many diseases to plants and animals and in man are thought to be responsible for such things as colds, influenza and measles. In plants they produce disorders such as wrinkling and yellowing of leaves. They seldom kill plants, but completely upset their normal way of life, and because they can ruin crops are a problem to man. Unlike a lot of bacterial and fungal diseases in plants, they cannot be killed by chemical sprays.

Tornado

2009-05-20T04:52:00.001-07:00

Tornado is a rotating column of air which is in contact with both the surface of the earth and a cloud. 'Tornada' in spanish means thunderstrom. Tornados occur in many sizes and are encompassed by a cloud of dust. They look like a thin tube between the earth and the cloud. They are sometimes too violent and are capable of tremendous distruction.

They basically form from thunderstroms majorly. when two air masses of warm, moist air and cold dry air come into contact they cause instability in the atmosphere and gives raise to Tornado. Tornado have varying wind speeds ranging between 40 mph to 100 mph. They stretch more than a mile on the ground. Tornado have occured in all continents except for Antartica. They commonly occur in south -central America, South Canada, new zealand.

Funnel clouds are the initial stages of the tornado. The rotating column of air before it touches the ground is called the Funnel cloud. Weaker tornado that occurs over water are called water spouts.

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Brophytes

2008-12-12T02:14:00.001-08:00

These are the mosses and liverworts. Liverworts are plants requiring damp conditions and they are often found in shade by water or near ditches, where they make green growths on the surface of the soil or on rocks. The flattish visible part of the plant is called the thallus and from its underside are produced simple root-like growths which anchor it to the ground. Most liverworts can increase by sending out branches which eventually become detached from the main plant. They can also reproduce sexually and after the fertilization of egg a stalk is produced from the upper surface of the thallus. At the top of the stalk is a capsule containing spores which when released to fall on a suitable place for growth, will produce a new generation of liverworts

Antibiotics and Viruses

2008-12-12T02:13:00.001-08:00

Bacteria

2008-12-12T02:12:00.001-08:00

Bacteria also come within the division of thallophytes that are dependent on green plants, for they are a group of minute organisms without any cholorophyll. They are parasites or saprophytes and are usually single celled often with the power of movement in the same way as chlamydomonas. They increase by straightforward division of an old cell into two new ones, or they can also form resting spores. These consist of cells which have specially tough cell walls, and in this stage the bacteria is very resistant, in some cases even to boiling water. These spores are very numerous and are present in the soil, the air and water. In fact they are present virtually everywhere unless special precautions are taken to kill them. During the resting stage they are not increasing at all but when conditions are suitable for their growth the cell wall breaks down and the bacteria become active again. Parasitic bacteria are often harmful such as anthrax in animals tetanus in man and soft roots in plants but quite a number do exist on other living organisms without doing them any harm. Saprophytic bacteria are often useful for they help in rooting down dead material. They are very active in for example a compost heap. Some are used to covert alcohol into vinegar. One group of bacteria (nitrogen fixing bacteria) are especially important as they live in swellings in the roots of plants of the legume family (peas and beans) and have the power of extracting nitrogen from the surrounding air in the soil and making it into a form that can be used by plants. This is why plants of this family, especially clover, are often grown in fields and then ploughed in to improve the soil. Other bacteria in the soil (nitrifying bacteria) can covert plant and animal remains into a form that plants can use. So by the very valuable action of these tiny life forms a continuous process is set up of turning waste and dead materials back into food for other plants. This called the nitrogen cycle.

Fungi

2008-12-12T02:11:00.001-08:00

Fungi represent a very important part of the thallophytes and are separated from the rest by many definite characteristics. They have no chlorophyll and no starch is present in their cells and it is easy to see from the example of a few familiar toadstools that they are quite different in actual make-up from all other plants. They do not live on their own manufactured food, but rely either on the decaying remains of other plants and animal life(these types are called saprophytes)or on living plants or animals(parasites). The fungi may be single celled plants such as yeast, which is used for baking bread and brewing beer, or multi-celled plants such as the mushroom. In these more advanced forms the main part of the plant is an intricate web of threads known as hyphae, the whole web being called the mycelium. This often lives underground or inside the host plant on which the fungus is living. The hyphae threads run about either in or between the cells of the plant and have the power of dissolving the cellulose of the cell walls and living on the contents. The saprophytic ones act in a similar way on dead organic material and are not generally harmful to plants or animals. These parasites on the other hand cause man a great deal of trouble and expense in trying to get rid of them. Some fungi attack animals, including man, an example being the fungal disease athlete's foot. With the larger fungi, the hyphae sometimes come above ground and form a special structure which can produce spores. This is the fruiting stage of the plant and the mushroom and toadstool are examples of this. The hyphae have another property which is important to the fungus and this is the formation of a hard tuber like body called sclerotium(again a resting stage) which is capable of existing for a long time without actually growing, or doing damage in the case of harmful fungi. This stage makes it difficult to get rid of some fungal diseases for they can withstand a lot of adverse treatment, and then germinate when conditions are suitable. As fungi lack chlorophyll they cannot make their own food by photosynthesis. They must therefore absorb carbohydrates from the plant or animal matter on which they live. Having got s source of supply of carbohydrates they can themselves convert these substances into the more complicated ones needed to make cellulose for cell walls, and for proteins and protoplasm. The last two can only be formed if the fungus has a source of nitrogen and other more complex chemicals from an outside source, so for this reason a lot of fungi are rather specialized in their choice of where to grow. Like the animals, fungi are dependent upon green plants for their food and could not live without them. So it is that the first living matter to colonise a new piece of ground will be something which can manufacture its own food, without depending on any other life form and it must therefore be a green plant whether one celled or multi celled. When this is established, fungi and animals will appear either to grow on or eat the plant or live on the organic matter which occurs when it dies.

Algae

2008-12-12T02:10:00.001-08:00

Although there are freshwater species the majority of algae live in the sea and the various seaweeds found at low tide are familiar examples. A lot of the most primitive of these plants are single-celled and invisible to the naked eye, whereas the large, more advanced seaweeds are made up of countless cells which may be divided into groups or tissues performing different tasks. Such plants may have primitive roots. These algae are very similar to other plants in the way they obtain their food, for they contain chlorophyll and photosynthesis takes place in the same way as it does in the advanced forms of plant life. Although many are green, quite a number have pigments in their cells which are stronger colours than green, giving the algae red, brown or even bluish colours. Their method of increase can be either by simple division of the original plant or sexual reproduction. There are thousands of different species of algae and it would be impossible here to describe even a small proportion of them, but one or two examples can be taken to show what life-forms exist in this group. Some of the tiny single-celled species are capable of movement and such a plant is Chlamydomonas, which is found in ponds and ditches. It is roundish in shape and is built up in the same basic way as other cells. At one end are two thread-like arms which project through the cell wall. These are called flagella, and by waving them around the cell can move in the water. The cell contains a nucleus and chloroplasts for manufacturing food, and in addition an orange-coloured object known as the eye-spot. This helps the chlamydomonas find its way towards brighter light, and in doing so gives the chloroplast a better chance to produce food. Other single celled algae do not go through life individually, but group themselves into a calony and hundreds or thousands together may just be visible without a microscope. These types are interesting in that they all use their flagella together and move as a whole colony towards light. Sometimes in bright weather the rate of reproduction is so fast that the water in ponds may be coloured green by their presence, and can easily be seen. The hard green covering often seen on older wooden fences is formed by large numbers of a small land alga known as Pleurococcus. It can withstand long periods of drought but like those which live in water it only becomes very active when there is plenty of moisture and it is warm. Many of the other algae in water can also form what are called resting stages so they can withstand adverse conditions such as the drying out of the pond in which they live. One of the commonest alga in ponds and slow steams is the plant which sometimes forms the slimy green masses familiar to all who spend some time near the water. This is called Spirogyra and is a long thread like plant formed from short cylindrical cells joined end to end. Among the most advanced of the algae are the common forms of seaweed called wracks which inhabit rocky costs all over Europe. Fucus vesiculosus commonly called bladder wrack, has a portion as its base which is adapted to clasp on to rocks and prevent the plant being washed away. This part of the plant has no powers of absorbing foods and is entirely an anchor. The stem is cylindrical at first then higher up it is flattened out and has built in bladders of air which act like water wings and keep the plant upright in the water. The whole plant is very slippery, being covered with a jelly like substance and it is rubbery to withstand the buffeting of waves. Reproduction is either by the simple breaking off of sections of the stem which in these plants is called the thallus, or by the formation of two kinds of special cells, one of which is capable of movement like chlamydomonas plants.These special cells are set free when the tide is in and the mobile ones swim to the others and they fuse together forming a spore. This can germinate and develop into another plant.

Woodpecker

2008-12-05T01:43:00.001-08:00

Woodpeckers are real tree- dwellers, where they dig for insects and grubs. The loud drumming made by the beak is a male's warning to other males, and also an invitation to a female. A hole is bored in a tree for a nest. Common in Europe are the Lesser Spotted (no larger than a sparrow) the Great Spotted and the Green Woodpeckers. The largest European species is the Black Woodpecker, as big as a crow. Largest of all is the Ivory – billed Woodpecker of Mexico, fifty centimeters long.

Some gaudily coloured birds related to woodpeckers are the toucans of South America, which have enormous beaks and look top-heavy. In fact the beak is quite light, and a toucan can hold and play with a grape or an egg without damaging it.

Vertebrates

2008-12-05T01:41:00.001-08:00

The animals we know best for man is one of them-are called vertebrates, or animals with a backbone (vertebra, Latin for a twisting joint) there are five classes: mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fishes. Some zoologists give this group another name, the Chordata, so as to include a few very primitive sea- creatures like sea- squirts and lampreys which also have a kind of simple backbone, called notochord. In the true vertebrates this is found in the embryos only(when the animal is in its earliest stage of development and is slowly replaced by a bony, jointed vertebral column down the back.

Tortoises and Turtles

2008-12-05T01:40:00.001-08:00

Tortoises and Turtles are unique among animals, having their whole bodies enclosed in a bony box. This is built from the rib cage which grows and joins up outside the limbs. The earliest tortoise show separate ribs but even these are already flattened as if about to join together. This peculiarity goes back even before the dinosaurs, so that chelonians (the name of the order to which tortoises and turtles belong are the oldest group of reptiles. They even have the oldest individuals on earth today- the giant tortoises which can live to a hundred and fifty years or more. Chelonians are of three kinds-tortoises, turtles and terrapins. Tortoises are land reptiles with domed shells and stumpy legs. They move about clumsily and feed mostly on plants and fruit. The largest are the giant tortoises of the Galapagos Islands in the Pacific, and the Aldabra Islands in the Indian Ocean. They can weigh up to 550 kilograms and measure almost two meters in length. Tortoises sold in shops as pets come from the Mediterranean countries, and have been known to live up to a hundred years. Eggs are laid in the ground and left to hatch in the sun.

Turtles are sea-going chelonians, with flatter shells than tortoises and more paddle – like feet for swimming. At night the females come ashore on some lonely tropical beach where there is sand. They dig pits in which up to 150 eggs may be laid. These are covered up and the mother then returns to the sea. Later the babies hatch out, struggle to the surface, then make as fast as they can for the water. On the way many are caught by the waiting sea-birds. Because turtles are also caught for food and their eggs dug up, some are now becoming rare. One or two countries do protect turtles by fencing off some of the beaches where they lay their eggs, later collecting the young and taking them out to sea where they will be safe to grow up. The largest turtles, up to 400 kilograms and one and a half meters long, is the Leathery Turtle. The Green Turtle is the species usually caught for making turtle soup, and the Hawksbill Turtle for its shell, called tortoiseshell.

Terrapin is an American Indian name for freshwater tortoises which swim in rivers and marshes, catching fish and water animals. They spend hours basking in the sun at the waterside, but dive in at any sign of danger.

Rubber

2008-12-05T01:39:00.001-08:00

One of the most interesting stories of plant life is the history of the rubber tree(Hevea brasiliensis). From the very early days of its discovery in South America, when the conquering Spanish saw children playing with rubber balls it was realized that rubber had water proofing and other properties which made it valuable. The real boom for the rubber industry came when rubber tyres were made. Whole books have been written about it and the way in which world history has been changed by this indispensable substance.

Although originally from South America, rubber trees are now grown throughout the tropics, especially in South-East Aisa. The rubber begins life as a white latex which is obtained by cutting grooves in the bark of the trees. First it goes through a chemical process which results in a sheet of crepe rubber and in this form it can be transported. Further processing is necessary before it is made into such items as tyres. Nowadays synthetic materials are generally mixed with natural rubber.

A few other plants have been used to produce rubber, particularly in war-time when the transport of tropical rubber was difficult. A species of dandelion was used for this purpose in the Second World War, the white sticky latex producing a rather inferior grade of rubber. Another form of latex, from trees of the Sapotaceae family, is used for chewing gum.

Parasitic Worms

2008-12-05T01:38:00.001-08:00

Most annelid worms live freely in the soil or water, but some worm-like groups live inside other animals, even man. One of these is the group called Nematoda, or roundworms, containg some 10,000 species. They are pale in colour, without segments, and have pointed ends. They move about in a curious figure – of-eight fashion. Some of these nematodes, can be up to fifteen centimeters long, but many kinds are microscopic. All told there are vast numbers of these nematodes living in all sorts of animals, also plants, and a great number n the soil.

Each animal victim of a parasite is called a host. The human is host to another kind of worm, called a tapeworm. This belongs to the group of 6,000 species called Platyhelminthes or flatworms. In this case here are two hosts, the human and another animals which he may eat as meat, such as pork or beef. The pig or bull may pick up a tapeworm egg and swallow it. This hatches into a larva and bores into the flesh.

Another type of flatworm, called a fluke, has the shape of a small leaf. One example is the liver-flike which attacks sheep.

Arthropods

2008-12-05T01:36:00.001-08:00

This is one of the most widespread divisions of the animal kingdom, certainly the largest. Arthropod means jointed legs but whereas vertebrates have only four legs, some of these invertebrates have many more. The main classes of arthropods are insects, arachnids(spiders, scorpions and mites), millipedes and centipedes, and crustaceans(crabs, lobsters and shrimps)

Reptiles

2008-10-30T04:37:00.001-07:00

Hydrophytes

2008-10-30T04:20:00.001-07:00

These are plants which grow in or near water and are adapted according to whether they live on the surface, or are submerged, or grow in the mud at the edge of the water.Some are a combination of all these and have several different types of leaves. Some hydrophytes (for example water lily) are anchored to the bottom by roots, and send up leaves on long stems until they reach the surface, when they unfold and spread out. The giant water lily(Victoria regia) is an extreme example of this. The flowers too come up on a long stem and open out above the water.

Some water plants are not rooted to the bottom and merely float on the surface (for example duckweed)or under the surface (for example bladderwort).Such water plants can only live in still waters but some submerged plants are anchored to the bottom by roots and produce long growth with small leaves and these are better adapted to life in running water. The leaves of most water plants have large air cavities in them to act as 'water wings', and some produce large bladder-like swellings for the same purpose(for example water hyacinth).

The water crowfoot is amphibious, that is it can live both in water or at the edge in the damp mud. It has surface leaves which are flat and large compared to the submerged leaves which, when living in water, are finely divided with narrow lobes. These smaller leaves disappear if the water level drops and the plant is left at the edge.

Parasites and Saprophytes

2008-10-30T04:18:00.001-07:00

These are plants which depend entirely or partly on other organisms. We have already dealt with the fungi, which are the largest group of parasites and saprophytes in the plant kingdom. But there are other plants which exist on living material (parasites) or make use of dead organic substances (saprophytes) Parasites may be total or partial that is they either get the whole of their food materials from the host plant on which they live, and have no green parts, or they have chlorophyll of their own and can manufacture a certain amount of their own food, but also need some from the host.

Dodder, in the Convolvulus family is a total parasite and can be seen on the stems of plants such as gorse and heather. This is a stem parasite but other plants such as broomrape are root parasites and penetrate and live on the roots of a host plant.

Mistletoe is another good example of a parasite which occurs on the stems and trunks of trees, while several members of the foxglove family live on the roots of grasses in meadows. Saprophytes make use of decaying matter and usually occur in woodlands where there is plenty of rotting vegetation. The bird's nest orchid can be seen growing in woods and is a brownish plant which only appears above ground when it sends up a flowering stem. The roots actually live in association with a fungus which breaks down the rooting materials it lives on into soluble substances. The fungus also penetrates the roots of the orchid and gains some of its materials from the cells there, while the orchid gets its supplies of food materials through the fungus. Thus the two plants are living together and depending on each other for their existence, this being called symbiosis.

Insect eating plants

2008-10-30T04:15:00.001-07:00

Although green plants are self-supporting as far as their food requirements go, some plants do rely to a certain extent on other living creatures. One group of these, known as insectivorous plants (plants which live on insects), gain part of their nourishment by trapping insects in various ways. The plants digest the insect's bodies and take the dissolved proteins into their systems. Several of these interesting plants occur in Europe, and there are many others in tropical countries, often large and with weird methods of trapping insects. Insectivores are usually plants of marshes and bogs where the soil is poor in the nitrogen compounds so necessary for their continued healthy existence. Although they are mostly green plants, producing some of their own food, they do need the proteins of the insects to make up the lack of nitrogenous food.

Some plants produce hollow leaves containing liquid in which the insects drown, the Sarracenia being an example of this. The leaves are rather funnel-like with a lid to the opening at the top. The rim of the funnel has nectar to attract insects, and the whole plant is often brightly colored. Inside the funnel is a slippery area, and downward pointing hairs, which prevent any insects crawling out again. Nepenthes, the pitcher plant, produces curious pitcher-shaped extensions to the leaves which act in the same way as Sarracenia. They are usually climbing plants rather than bog plants, and are widely grown in greenhouses in hanging baskets. In both of these plants, the insects bodies are decomposed in the watery fluid at the base of the pitcher, which contains many bacteria, the plant then using the dissolved substances.

Xerophytes

2008-10-30T04:04:00.001-07:00

These are the plants of the deserts or other dry places. For this reason they must have some method of withstanding long periods of drought, very bright light, strong winds and, perhaps, very high temperatures – although not all deserts are hot.

There are various ways in which plants can overcome these conditions. With annual plants, the seeds often have a long life and will only germinate after rainfall. They then grow very rapidly and complete their life cycle before the drought occurs. On the other hand perennial plants have to exist through bad spells and usually have some method of storing up moisture to tide them over. Cacti are a good example of this with their swollen fleshy growth.

Large thin flat leaves would be of no use in the desert as they would evaporate too much moisture from their surfaces, so leaves are often very small or narrow, and usually have very thick outer layer (cuticle), preventing water loss. They might even be reduced in size to hard spines as in many cacti and succulents. The Yucca has leaves which are narrow and with a very tough cuticle to withstand the desert conditions in America.

Roots may be adapted to store water, becoming thick and fleshy, and it is noticeable that in drier parts of the world, such as the Middle East, there are many plants which produce underground bulbs, corms or tubers. Leaves can also be thick and fleshy for water storage, or develop only during the rainy season, to drop off again when the dry summer comes.

Some grasses can roll their leaves inwards from the edges in dry spells, thus leaving a smaller surface exposed to the sun, while acacias in Australia can turn their leaves sideways on to the sun so that it does not scorch down on to the flat surfaces. Leaves sometimes have dense coverings of hairs to protect them from sun and drying winds.

Plants which grow in places where the soil is very salty, such as by the sea, in river mouths or salt lakes inland, and have adapted themselves to overcome the peculiar conditions, are called halophytes. Most normal land plants are killed by salt in the soil but these plants are so successful that they can be important to man when trying to reclaim new land from the sea.

Epiphytes

2008-10-30T03:58:00.001-07:00

Some plants which may be mistaken for stem parasites are the Epiphytes which grow in trees usually in tropical areas, and many of the mosses come into this group. The difference is that epiphytes are normal green plants which have taken to a life of growing on the bark of tress but do not gain any of their nourishment from them. They live entirely on what food materials happen to be lodged in the crevices of the bark and a lot of orchids which live in this way send out thick white roots capable of extracting water from the damp tropical atmosphere.

ALL ABOUT HUMAN LIVER

2008-10-07T05:08:00.001-07:00

The liver is the largest organ inside our body weighing nearly 1.4kg. fifteen per cent of the total blood in the human body would be circulating at anytime in the liver alone. It is so substantial that even at rest, 2.5 pints of blood passes through the liver. It has a wonderful regeneration power. Even if 75 per cent of the cells inside get damaged, it regenerates them within a week . The liver's capacity to remove toxins from our blood stream is tremendous. Any man made machine of the same size cannot accomplish the task of toxin removal at the same rate as liver.

Great Wall of China

2007-09-25T21:40:00.001-07:00

The 'Great wall of China' was built 2000 years ago. The construction is said to have begun from the 5th century B.C. The construction of the wall spread over many dynasties and across many years. The Great Wall is the only longest human made structure. The wall spans to a distance of about 6,400 kms.

The construction of the wall was begun by Qin Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China during the Qin (Ch'in) Dynasty . In Chinese the wall is called "Wan-Li Qang-Qeng". The wall was built as a primary defense against the nomadic tribes. The king positioned armies near the wall to give warning signals about any attack. The wall was initially constructed with earth and gravel. As it was difficult to transport resources to build the wall local resources which were available were used. Rocks were used near mountain ranges and earth and gravel in plains. The wall got eroded in due course and was repaired and rebuilt several times by the ruling dynasties.

The present form of the Great Wall was done during the Ming dynasty. The Ming were defeated by the Mongols in the northern border. Hence to protect themselves the Ming adopted the strategy of building walls in the northern side. The Ming construction was of higher quality as they used bricks and stones instead of earth. The Ming also allocated ample resources to maintain the walls to withstand the frequent attacks.

The wall was well equipped with watch towers at regular intervals. The watch towers often housed weapons, food and army. The steps that form the Great Wall of China are very steep and tall in some areas. It is said that the Great Wall is visible from the earth's orbit.

Camel - Ship of the Desert

2007-09-19T00:26:00.001-07:00

Camel is called the 'Ship of the desert'. Camels are friendly animals and the best suited to live in the desert. They can travel very long distances. They can live without food and water for about 3-4 days time. Their strength and endurance have made them valuable to the desert.

There are two varities of camels the 'Arabian Camel which has a single hump and the Bacterian camel with the double hump. Camel's milk is a wholesome food. The people in the desert consider camels's milk as a boon to them. Camel meat is also a delicacy and is also known for its nutritive properties.

Camels are very tall animals. They stand up to a height of more than 7 feet. Their height protects them from the heat reflection of the hot sand. They have tear glands and long eyelashes to protect themselves from sand stroms. Their feet are well padded and insulated to travel in the desert sands. Their webbed toes prevent them from sinking into the sand. They are herbivorous. They have a leathery mouth which is suitable to thorny food. Their capacity to recycle water from their bladder helps them to survive without drinking water for longer periods. Energy producing fats are stored in the camel's hump.

What are Mummies?

2007-08-09T02:59:00.001-07:00

The Egyptians believed life after death. Hence they adopted a method of embalming the dead bodies and preserving them in tombs along with the possessions of the dead like clothes food etc, this process of embalming is called mummification. The Egyptians believed that the mummified body was the home for this soul or spirit. Mummification in ancient Egypt was a very long and expensive process. The embalmed bodies are called mummies. They drained the dead body completely of moisture and retained the dried form so theat it would not decay. The procedure of embalming is a very long procedure. This practice was followed in Egypt for more than 2000 years. The procedure adopted to embalm varied from century to century. Usually this was done only for the royal family members.

The process of mummification almost took 70 days and this was carried out by special priests who had detailed knowledge of human body and were experts. The first step which they did was to remove the vital organs like the brain, liver, lungs, stomach and put them into special jars called 'Canopic Jars'. The brain was removed by a very critical operation else the face could get disfigured. The other organs were removed by through a cut that was made in the left side of the abdomen. The heart was left in place as it was considered the persons center of intelligence.

The embalmers used 'Natron' which is a type of salt that has drying properties. The bodies were immersed in Natron until all the mositure is removed. Packets of Natron are place in the insides of the body to ensure the insides are completely dry. They then did some filling to bring the body back to shape. The body was then wrapped with lots of linen, it is in this stage were the relatives and friends of the dead can donate linen for wrapping. This procedure requires 100s of yards of linen and it took atleast fifteen days to complete wrapping. Warm resin coating was used at stages of wrapping and wrapping was continued.

The tomb preparation, decoration and collection of items for the dead are all done well in advance. Once the wrapping is complete the priests perform some rituals at the tomb entrance and then put the mummy in a coffin and the tomb is sealed.

Facts About the Moon

2007-07-15T21:58:00.000-07:00

The Moon is the only natural satellite of Earth. The Moon, has been known since time immemorial. It is the second brightest object in the sky after the Sun. As the Moon orbits around the Earth. I takes approximately one month to complete one rotation. The Moon is the only celestial body that humans have travelled to and landed on and have brought samples. The Soviet spacecraft Luna 2 was the first one to land on the moon on the July 20, 1959. Neil Armstrong became the first man to step onto the surface of the Moon On July 20, 1969.

By simply viewing through the naked eye one can see two major types of terrain: relatively bright highlands and darker plains. The Moon has no atmosphere. The lunar sky is always dark as the diffraction of light requires an atmosphere. Various samples obtained reveal that there are three types of Terrain on the moon, the Regolith, the maria, and the Terrae. 'Regolith is the outermost part, the relatively bright, heavily cratered highlands are called "Terrae" and the dark, lightly cratered is called "Maria".

Meteorite impacts on the moon brought a variety of "exotic" rocks to the Moon. The samples obtained produced many different rock types for study. The underlying crust was also thinned and cracked due to the impacts. Due to the lack atmosphere nor any water, the components in the soils do not weather chemically as they would on Earth. Rocks more than 4 billion years old still exist there, yielding information about the early history of the solar system that is unavailable on Earth.

The gravitational forces between the Earth and the Moon cause some interesting effects. The most obvious is the tides. The Moon's gravitational attraction is stronger on the side of the Earth nearest to the Moon and weaker on the opposite side. Since the Earth, and particularly the oceans, is not perfectly rigid it is stretched out along the line toward the Moon. From our perspective on the Earth's surface we see two small bulges, one in the direction of the Moon and one directly opposite. The effect is much stronger in the ocean water than in the solid crust so the water bulges are higher.

The Moon has no global magnetic field. But some of its surface rocks exhibit magnetism which indicates there could have been a global magnetic field early in the Moon's history. The Moon's surface is completely exposed to the solar wind and many ions form the solar wind have become embedded in the moon's Regolith.

Newton's Laws of Motion

2007-07-06T04:37:00.001-07:00

Newton's laws of motion are three physical laws. These laws provide relationships between the forces acting on a body and the motion of the body.Newton's laws were first published together in his work Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687). The laws form the basis for classical mechanics. Newton used them to explain many results concerning the motion of physical objects.

Newton's First Law of Motion:
Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion unless an external force is applied to it.

Newton's Second Law of Motion:
The relationship between an object's mass m, its acceleration a, and the applied force F is F = ma. Acceleration and force are vectors (as indicated by their symbols being displayed in slant bold font); in this law the direction of the force vector is the same as the direction of the acceleration vector.

Newton's Third Law of Motion:
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

The first law is termed as the "Law of Inertia". The second law aid in quantitative calculations of dynamics. This law explains the velocity chnages that happen when a force is applied. The third law exemplifies by what happens when we bounce a rubber ball on the ground it pushes back itself witht he same force in the opposite direction.

Akshaya Trithiya

2007-04-17T21:38:00.000-07:00

'Atchayam' - Growing without becaoming empty.The third day of the lunar fortnight, which is called 'thritiya'. Thus the properous day ' Akshya trithiya '. Like any other thidhi we celebrate the trithiya of the growing phase of the moon. Many Indian women worship the Godess Lakshmi on this sacred day. Many of our puranas reveal prosperous instances that took place on this day.
The siddhas are said to move about the universe and bless the people. Its said that its good to perform charity on this day. There are certain rituals that have to be followed on this day. One should take oil bath and worship God and do some charity. Performing libations to our departed ancestors is considred to be fruitful on this day. It is believed that wealth will increase if one keeps money in the pooja and worships on this day.
Puranas say that it was on this day that Lord Krishna bestowed kuchela with boudless wealth when he came to meet him. Astronomers say that this is the day on which the sun and the moon are the brightest. This is also an auspicious day to start new ventures and purchases. Its also believed that if a person buys small amount of gold and keeps it in the pooja and wears it on this day, it will accumulate all throught the year. Its good to gift clothes and fruits on this day.

What is Heart Failure?

2007-03-27T03:22:00.000-07:00

Heart failure is a condition due to the inability of the heart to pump oxygenated blood and essential substances to the body parts caused due to the weekness in its muscles. This is a serious medical illness, and requires critical care admission.

Surgical correction is required if the heart failure is due to vavular diseases. Some symptoms are Fatigue, breathlessness on exertion or swollen veins in the neck area, enlargement of the liver etc., Patients with advanced heart failure and severe pumping defect of left ventricle have to be treated with ventricular repair procedures or ventricular assist devices.
Some patients may develop a condition called stent thrombosis after agioplasty with stenting. This is due to improper dialation of stent or an uncovered dissected area where stenting was carried out. Some symptoms are chest pain and breathlessness. These patients may require hospitalisation and repeat agioplasty if necessary.

There are various types of stents available in the market. The cost of the stents depends on the brand, special features and stent designs.The cost also depends upon the older generation and newer generation manufactury.

Longest River in the world -Nile

2007-03-18T21:49:00.000-07:00

Nile- The longest river in the worl, flowing about 6677 km. The Nile gets its name from the Greek word "Nelios", meaning River Valley. Nile Valley is called the cradle of civilization. Nile is the main water resource for Egypt. The two main tributaries of the Nile River are the White Nile and the Blue Nile. Lake Victoria is the source of the White Nile and the Blue Nile begins in the Ethiopian Highlands. The two tributaries converge in Khartoum, the capital of Sudan where they form the Nile River. The Nile flows from the mountains in the south to the Mediterranean in the north. Egypt is called the gift of Nile.

Before the construction of the Aswan High Dam; the Nile rolled through a series of six rapids, called cataracts, between northern Sudan and southern Egypt. The construction of the dam has caused major changes in the flow of Nile. Lake Nasser is a man-made lake created by the construction of the Aswan High Dam, opened in 1971. The dam was built to regulate the flow of the Nile River.

The major cities that are located on the edge of the Nile and White Nile are: Cairo, Gondokoro, Khartoum, Aswan, Thebes/Luxor, Karnak, and the town of Alexandria lies near the Rozeta branch.The major dams on the Nile are Roseires Dam, Sennar Dam, Aswan High Dam, and Owen Falls Dam. Fishing is a main source of income and wealth for many who live on the banks if Nile. Each year thousands of tonnes of fish are caught. Many modern travelers to Egypt today take a Nile cruise as part of their package.

What is Metabolism?

2007-03-12T01:24:00.000-07:00

The body gets the energy it needs from food through a process called metabolism. Metabolism means transformation. Metabolism is a collection of chemical reactions that takes place to transform the food we eat into the energy needed by the body to perform actions. Metabolism is a constant process that begins when we're conceived and ends when we die. It is a necessary function that allows our bodies to use food and other resources to maintain the working parts, repair damage, heal injury and rid the body of toxins. Apart from aiding in digestion Metabolism aids absorption of nutrients. The metabolic activity is mostly influenced by the nutrition intake, adequate hydration and physical activity. When any one of these is lacking, the metabolic rate decreases.
After we consume food, the molecules in the digestive system called enzymes break proteins down into amino acids, fats into fatty acids, and carbohydrates into simple sugars. These compounds are absorbed into the blood, which transports them to the cells. After they enter the cells, other enzymes act to speed up or regulate the chemical reactions involved with "metabolizing" these compounds. During these processes, the energy from these compounds can be released for use by the body or stored in body tissues, especially the liver, muscles, and body fat. In this way, the process of metabolism is really a balancing act involving two kinds of activities that go on at the same time - the building up of body tissues and energy stores and the breaking down of body tissues and energy stores to generate more fuel for body functions.

Metabolism is a complicated chemical process. A calorie is a unit that measures how much energy a particular food provides to the body. The body stores the energy initially in form of fat. If a person consumes too many calories and his physical activity is not enough to utilise the consumed amount the excess remains as fat in the body thus resulting in increase of weight. The basal metabolic rate, or BMR, is a measure of the rate at which a person's body "burns" energy, in the form of calories, while at rest. Low calorie dieting slows your metabolism, making it progressively more difficult to lose weight and keep it off.

Anabolism or constructive metabolism, supports the growth of new cells, the maintenance of body tissues, and the storage of energy for use in the future. During anabolism, small molecules are changed into larger, more complex molecules of carbohydrate, protein, and fat.

Catabolism or destructive metabolism, is the process that produces the energy required for all activity in the cells. In this process, cells break down large molecules to release energy. This energy release provides fuel for anabolism, heats the body, and enables the muscles to contract and the body to move. As complex chemical units are broken down into more simple substances, the waste products released in the process of catabolism are removed from the body through the skin, kidneys, lungs, and intestines.

Several of the hormones of the endocrine system are involved in controlling the rate and direction of metabolism. Thyroxine , a hormone produced and released by the thyroid gland, plays a key role in determining how fast or slow the chemical reactions of metabolism proceed in a person's body.

The pancreas secretes hormones that help determine whether the body's main metabolic activity at a particular time will be anabolic or catabolic. For example, after eating a meal, usually more anabolic activity occurs because eating increases the level of glucose - the body's most important fuel - in the blood. The pancreas senses this increased level of glucose and releases the hormone insulin , which signals cells to increase their anabolic activities.

Metabolic disorder is caused by an abnormal chemical reaction in the body's cells. Some metabolic diseases are inherited. These conditions are called inborn errors of metabolism.

All About Nobel Prize

2007-02-07T08:55:00.000-08:00

Nobel Prize is name after the swedish chemist Alfred Nobel who invented the Dynamite. He was first awarded the prize five years after his death.

The Nobel Prize was initially awarded for subjects like Physics, Chemistry, Medicine, Literature and Peace. Later on Economics was also added.

These prizes are awarded to individuals only except the Peace Prize and each award is awarded to minimum three people in a year.

The first Nobel prizes were awarded to

Chemistry : Jacobus H' van't Hoff
Physics : Wilhelin C Rotgen
Medicine : Emil A Von Behring
Literature : Rene F A Sully Prudhomme
Peace : Jean H Dunant Frederic Passy.

Story of Paper - Papyrus To Paper

2007-02-03T07:02:00.000-08:00

The story of paper tracks down to 5000 years behind. Paper originated in Egypt. Egyptians wrote on materials made from Papyrus Reed. These were grown in the Nile Delta. The writing material was made by laying strips of the stem side by side and sticking them together.

Although Papyrus was prevalent in Egypt it did not reach Europe. The Europeans used the animal skins. This material was called parchment. This had many advantages over papyrus. The parchment was very flexible and did not crack. It could be folded and both sides of it could be cused for writing.

The Chinese official name Ts' Ai Lun made paper using a strange assortment of mulberry and bamboo fibers. This is the material we use today. The chinese guarded the secret of making paper for more than 1000 years. Unfortunately the Moors learnt this and spread it to Spain and Sicily. From there it spread throughout Europe and by the 1200 the paper mills had mushroomed in Italy.

The Paper gained its importance once Johannes Gutenberg invented the first mechanical printing press in 1455. From then on books were printed using the paper and demad for paper grew. Presently United States is the world's leading paper producer.

What is Chlorophyll?

2007-01-11T06:42:00.000-08:00

Chlorophyll is the green colouring of leaves which are vital to green plants. This helps the plants to make their food. This is also reponsible for the colours in plants such as red in carrots. Plants which have no chlorophyll depend on other plants for food and are called parasites.

Chlorophyll absorbs sunlight and uses its energy to synthesise carbohydrates from CO2 and water. During this process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll produces energy, in the form of carbohydrates, which will power all of the plant's essential growth and development.

Fungi

2007-01-05T05:30:00.001-08:00

Fungi respresent a very important part of the thallophytes, and are distinguished from the rest by many definite charateristics. They have no chlorophyll and no starch is present in their cells. They do not live on their own manufactured food, but rely on decaying plant or animal remains.

The fungi may be single celled plants such as yeast, which is used for baking bread abd brewing beer or can be multicelled such as mushrooms. In these more advanced forms the main part of the plant is an intricate web of threads known as hyhae, the whole web is called mycelium. This often lives underground or inside the host plant on which the fungus is living. The hyphae threads run about either in or between the cells of the plant and have the power of dissolving the cellulose of the cell walls and living on the contents.

The saprophytic ones act in a similar way on dead organic material and are not generally harmful to plants or animals. The parasites on the other hand cause man a great deal of trouble and expense in trying to get rid of them. Some fungi like 'Athelete's foot attack man. With the larger fungi, the hyphae sometimes come above the ground and form a special structure which can produce spores. This is the fruiting stage of the plant and the mushroom and toadstool are examples of this.

The hyhpae have another property which is important to the fungus and this is the formation of hard tuber like body called sclerotium which is capable of exsiting for a long time without growing. This stage makes it difficult to get rid of fungal infections for they can withstand all adverse treatments yet germinate at favourable conditions.

The fungi lack chlorophyll so they absorb carbohydrates from plants or animals on which they live. Like the animals they are dependent on green plants for their food and canot live without them.

What are Bryophytes?

2007-01-05T05:30:00.000-08:00

These are the mosses and liverworts. Liverworts are plants requiring damp conditions and they are often found in shade by water or near ditches, where they make green growths on surface of the soil or on rocks. The flattish visible part of the plant is called the thallus and from its underside are produced simple root-like growths which anchor it to the ground.

Most liverworts can increase by sending out branches which eventually become detached from the main plant. They can also reproduce sexually and after the fertilisation of the egg a stalk is produced from the upper surface of the thallus. At the top of the stalk is a capsule containing spores which, when released to fall on a suitable place of growth, will produce a new generation of liverworts.

Calenders

2007-01-03T08:04:00.000-08:00

A calender is just a way to keep track of time. The 'Gregorian' calender is most used these days. In Indian history, we have used different types of calenders. For business and government purposes we use the 'Gregorian' calender but, when its time to celebrate holidays like Pongal and Eid other calenders are used.

The Islamic calender is a lunar calender. The lunar month is roughly the time moon takes to go around the earth. The Islamic Lunar calender is shorter than the 'Gregorian' calender by 11 days. This means that the month of Ramzan will be observed around 11 days earlier every 'Gregorian' calender.

Emperor Akbar used a combination of the Hindu and Muslim Calender. This calender counts dates begining with the birth of Christ as A.D and counts dates before the birth of Christ as B.C. These days, many modern historians use the letters C.E (common era) instead of A.D and letters B.C.E instead of B.C.

Seasons- Are they the same across Planets?

2006-11-20T09:36:00.000-08:00

It is always hot!!! this is the statement made by people who live in the zones where the variations between the highest and lowest temperatures are not felt. The weather is more equable around the equator. However, the seasonal variations can be felt as we start moving away from the equator.

The days are shorter during winter than summer. We know the climatic conditions are reversed when we consider the northern and the southern hemispheres. This is because the earth is tilted on an axis. When we take the planets other than earth, they also do have equinoxes and a few of them do have marked seasons also. The seasonal changes depends on the how much tilt each planet has about its axis.

When we take mercury and Venus the tilt on the axis is negligible so their poles remain eternally on the verge of night. The Mars had a 25 degree tilt which is close to that of earth and hence has seasons quite similar to earth but longer than ours in duration. Mars takes almost twice the time the earth takes to go around the sun.

Jupiter has minimal tilt like Venus and hence does not experience seasonal changes. Saturn has the equinoxes like Earth but the intensity of sunlight is very less hence the effect of the seasonal changes felt is minimal although one can proclaim it has seasons.

Uranus undergoes dramatic seasonal changes. As the tilt on the axis is 98 degrees its poles face the sun for directly at a time for about 21 years. So either of the poles have the summer season for 21 years each. And for some shorter period of time the entire planet bathes in sunlight for the sun is directly on its equator. This is expected to happen sometime in May’2007.

Neptune’s seasons are pretty ineffective as Saturn. But, Pluto has a tilt of 58 degrees and each season on Pluto lasts for about 62 years. So Earth has the apt seasonal and climatic conditions for humans to survive.

All About Chocolates

2006-11-06T14:24:00.000-08:00

Over 2000 years ago the Aztec and Mayan cultures discovered the Cacao beans. This is the source from which yummy chocolates are made.

The cacao plants grows in hot regions. This plant is a shady plant and often is found growing under the coconut, lemon, banana trees. The tree has very tender fragile branches and hence the flowers and the bean pods develop directly on the trunk. The flowers are half white in color. The fruit resembles a cucumber.

The beans taken from the plant are fermented, roasted and then made into a drink. This beverage made was special and was served only to the royals. Columbus brought them to Spain from America during his last trip to America. The credit of sweetening the drink goes to the Spaniards. This recipe was kept a secret for many years. Later on the secret leaked gradually and spread across the world.

Only in the early 1800s the solid chocolates were prepared. The original Cadbury chocolate was made by and English doctor named Sir Hans Sloane. Chocolates where introduced in India by the Japanese. The Biggest Chocolate bar was made in Austria in a Chocolate Festival, it measured 5m*2m in size and about 2000 kgs in weight.

Chocolates can lift up your mood. Serotonin in released in the brain on consumption of chocolate that makes one feel good. Consumption of chocolate is effective in relieving cough. However, consumption of chocolates can cause dental problems due to the sugar content. Hence proper care has to be taken.

Who are Pearl Divers?

2006-11-01T15:07:00.000-08:00

Pearls are known to us for a very long period of time. We would have read in our history lessons that the kings gifted their poets and court men with pearls for their achievements and the Queens adorned themselves lavishly with Pearls.

However, behind all such pomp and splendor lies the hard work of the ‘Pearl Divers’ who were responsible for collecting the Oysters from the dangerous depths of the Seas. In those days when there was no technical advancement the divers were not equipped with any protective measures. They used to hold their breath all the time from the time of plunging into the sea, drown themselves with the help of weights tied to their body, scope the oysters and return.

Theses divers had to face the grave risks of shark attacks and also attacks from other dangerous aquatic creatures. And holding the breath for such longer periods is a mammoth task by itself. A momentary negligence may lead to death. These people often faced the after effects such as acute pain in the limbs.

However gradually due to scientific growth these divers were equipped adequately with helmets and air pumps. Weight distribution was made in the suits they wore so that they could travel under water. A rope was fastened to their waist and the end of the rope was held by a man in the boat. The diver could send signals of danger by tugging the rope so the he could be pulled up by the rescuer. As science advanced aqua pumps were introduced fro safe breathing and special suits were designed to ward off attacks caused by the sea creatures.

The Sphinx of Giza

2006-11-01T14:51:00.000-08:00

The Sphinx is the greatest monumental statue of Egypt. This historic symbol is located at Giza near Cairo. In fact it is the national symbol of the country. It is the mammoth monolith of a lion’s body with human face. This statue is about 4500 years old and measures close to 73 mts long and 20 mts tall.

The face of the statue represents the face of Khafre, the ruler of Egypt. The word Sphinx is a Greek word. This means the goddess with a female face with a body of the lion and wings of a bird. However the Sphinx of Giza is a small correction with a King’s face and a lion’s body. According to the Egyptians the Sphinx represents power and might of their king.

Egyptians had quarried large quantities of lime stones to build temples and tombs from a hill and the balance portion of the hill was itself converted to the Sphinx. The Sphinx as it is made of limestone deposit is susceptible to erosion. The Sphinx often remained buried under sand hills for longer periods and was restored every now and then. However, one can say the frequent burials are for good for it had prevented the statue from eroding away due to the sea breeze.

What are Steroids?

2006-10-31T05:58:00.000-08:00

Steroids are very useful and potent form of drugs. Although they have side-effects if administered with proper medical advice would definitely be life-saving. These are found in the body naturally. These are secreted by the adrenal glands as hormones. The steroids are of two types one that is found naturally the other is manufactured synthetically.

Steroids are medically administered in acute and chronic inflammatory conditions. In certain cases of acute asthma which does not respond to ordinary drugs steroids are used as life saving drug. It is also administered for people suffering because of ‘Addisons disease’ . This is a condition where the human body stops secreting natural hormones. However, if the steroids are administered for longer periods the body tends to decrease the secretion of natural steroids.

Steroids although has some vital uses, it also has certain side- effects like ulceration of the stomach, swelling of the neck, weakening of bones, Increasing the body hair, the skin would tend to lose its texture, blood pressure levels would increase in some cases.

In spite of all these side-effects the steroids are being misused world-wide, the most common types of misuses are : To provide instant relief from body aches, fever, in cases of skin inflammations.

Comets

2006-10-27T05:15:00.000-07:00

Not long ago, many people thought that comets were a sign that something bad was about to happen to them. People didn't understand how objects in the sky moved, so the sight of a comet must have been very disturbing. There are many historical records and works of art which record the appearance of comets and link them with terrible events such as wars or plagues.

One of the most famous comets is Halley's comet named after the famous astronomer Edmund Halley. Halley accurately calculated its time to orbit around sun as 76 years. This comet appeared in 1910 after which it appeared 1986 after 76 years as calculated by the great astronomer. In 1985-1986, a spacecraft called Giotto visited the most famous comet, Halley, on Halley's most recent visit to the inner solar system.

Unlike the other small bodies in the solar system, comets have been known since antiquity. Comets are sometimes called dirty snowballs or "icy mud balls". Comets are invisible except when they are near the Sun. Comets are small, fragile, irregularly shaped bodies composed of a mixture of non-volatile grains and frozen gases. They have highly elliptical orbits that bring them very close to the Sun and swing them deeply into space, often beyond the orbit of Pluto. The Comet structure consists of the nucleus, coma, hydrogen cloud and a dust tail. Comet structures are diverse and very dynamic, but they all develop a surrounding cloud of diffuse material, called a coma, that usually grows in size and brightness as the comet approaches the Sun. Usually a small, bright nucleus (less than 10 km in diameter) is visible in the middle of the coma. The coma and the nucleus together constitute the head of the comet.

As comets approach the Sun they develop enormous tails of luminous material that extend for millions of kilometers from the head, away from the Sun. When far from the Sun, the nucleus is very cold and its material is frozen solid within the nucleus. In this state comets are sometimes referred to as a "dirty iceberg" or "dirty snowball," since over half of their material is ice. When a comet approaches within a few AU of the Sun, the surface of the nucleus begins to warm, and volatiles evaporate. The evaporated molecules boil off and carry small solid particles with them, forming the comet's coma of gas and dust. When the nucleus is frozen, it can be seen only by reflected sunlight.

Meteor shower sometimes occur when the Earth passes thru the orbit of a comet. Some occur with great regularity: the Perseid meteor shower occurs every year between August 9 and 13 when the Earth passes thru the orbit of Comet Swift-Tuttle.

Now we know that comets are lumps of ice and dust that periodically come into the center of the solar system from somewhere in its outer reaches, and that some comets make repeated trips. When comets get close enough to the Sun, heat makes them start to evaporate. Jets of gas and dust form long tails that we can see from Earth. These tails can sometimes be millions of miles long.

What is Paracetamol?

2006-10-25T13:30:00.000-07:00

An individual is said to have fever if his or her body temperature exceeds 37 degree Celsius. Fever is a sign of illness. Fever causes a great deal of discomfort. Fever is usually a resultant of some viral attack. Fever is rarely complicated. Sometimes it could be accompanied by dehydration and convulsion. It is always recommended to wear light clothing and consume plenty of water when affected by fever.

Paracetamol is the most commonly used drug to treat fever. It is a mild but very effective drug. It is available in variety of names in the market. It is otherwise known as ‘Acetaminophen’. On consumption of paracetamol the body heat is reduced by sweating. Paracetamol can be used during pregnancy also as it is less toxic in nature. Sometimes high doses cause nausea, drowsiness etc., and sometimes may result in renal failure too. In such cases it is recommended to meet a doctor. Paracetamol also reduces body pain caused during fever.

It is available in the market in variety of dosages. For children it is available as syrup and in form of tablets for adults. Paracetamol injections are also available. When consumed in tablet form, on has to consume lot of water.

When being treated with paracetamol one has to restrict to the prescribed dosage. Avoid fasting while taking the tablet. Refrain from consuming alcohol during usage of paracetamol. Usage of paracetamol for children should be done only under medical advice and guidance.

What is Pituitary Gland?

2006-05-17T04:10:00.002-07:00

One cannot imagine how a tiny gland located at the base of our brains controls the entire growth of the body. The erratic functioning of the pituitary gland can result in abnormal growth. Sandy Allan, a young woman in the U.S.A grew to an abnormal height of 7 ft and 7 inches because of the excessive secretion of the gland. Excess secretion can also happen after full body maturity. In such cases, only the hands, head and feet overgrow. On the contrary, lack of secretion of the gland can result in stunted growth, as it happened in the case of a Dutch woman, Pauline Musters, who could grow to 23 inches only, even after full maturity.

Courtesy: Indian Express

Bears - Where can they be found

2006-05-17T04:10:00.001-07:00

Bears can be found in all parts of the world except Antarctica, Africa and Australia.
When a bear cub is born, it is about the size of a squirrel.
Bears have excellent hearing capacity. Like dogs, they can hear very high pitches - far beyond anything humans can.
Bears see in colour and have a pretty good vision.
Bears have an excellent sense of smell. Their noses are extremely sensitive and they send messages to each other through airborne scent.
Bears run fast. They can exceed speeds of 60 kmph faster than any professional human athlete!
Bears are very, very strong. They can overturn massive rocks and logs and dig dens on tough mountain slopes.

Taste Buds

2006-05-17T04:10:00.000-07:00

Anyone who is extremely fond of sweets is called sweet tooth, though the teeth does not identify the taste. Rather, its the tongue that does this function. The tongue is the most important organ which is wholly muscular and without any bones inside. It moves tactfully between the teeth without getting trapped. The granular lumps on the surface of the toungue are the taste buds having hair like fibers at the top ends. They get activated when we chew our food. They send impulses to the taste center in the brain which identifies the taste and helps us relish our food. The taste buds do not get activated if the food is dry or solid. Only when moistened wit saliva they are identified. The nose works in conjunction with the tongue in identifying the taste and relishing the food. the sensory nerves in the nose too send impulses to the brain and helps enhancing the pleasure of tasting and relishing food.

Dinosaurs

2006-04-23T22:54:00.000-07:00

Dinosaurs lived on the earth millions of years ago even before the human life came into existence. They belong to the mezosoic era. The Dinosaurs are reptiles and most of them hhed from eggs. Predominantly the dinosaurs are herbivorous and fed on plants. Some kinds were carnivores also. Some dinosaurs were 100 ft long and abt 50 ft tall. They are land dewellers and never lived in water. There are no concrete proofs on how the dinosaurs sounded or how they mated. The fossils are found all over the world. They had thick bumpy skin. Its believed that they became extinct because of the environmental changes due to an asteroid that hit the earth. Its very difficult to acertain the sex of the dinosaur from its fossils. The oldest dinosaur is 'EORAPTOR'.

DOLPHINS

2006-04-10T23:59:00.000-07:00

Dolphins belong to the family Delphinidae. They are very social creatures. They mainly rely on their sense of sound to understand the world around them.

Dolphins are carnivores. They feed on octopus, squids and fish. There are many varities of dolphins like Spotted Dolphin, Rough-toothed Dolphin,Bottlenose Dolphin, Pacific bottlenose dolphin, Spinner Dolphins. Dolphins are often found in small groups.

Dolphins possess a beak. The dolphin's skin is completely smooth allowing the dolphin to move easily through the water, and also reduce heat loss. Their skin may bear marks from other dolphins, due to playing or mating. Dolphins use their powerful tail in an up and down motion to move through the water. They also use their tails when hunting. Their teeth are interlocking rows of conical pegs, suitable for holding slippery fish. The dolphin's eyes produce a special slippery secretion which protects the eyes from foreign objects and water friction. Their foreheads slope almost uniformly to the tip of their beek. Dolphins breathe through their blowhole located at the top of their head.

Dolphins are mammals. Dolphins carry their young inside their womb and gestation is about 12 months for a bottlenose. The dolphin calves are born tail first and are nursed by the mother for one to two years. The mother helps the calf to catch her first breath.

The dolphin's anatomy helps it to swim very fast in water. Its smoothe slippery skin, wings and tail are desinged in a way to achieve high speeds.

Lightning Arrestors

2006-03-18T04:47:00.001-08:00

Benjamin Fraklin was fond of kite flying. One day he was flying a kite made of silk cloth mounted to a wooden cross and fastened using a steel wire. The tail of the kite was connected to a long metal string at the center. The end of the string was connected to a silk ribbon which he held in his hand. He was enjoying his kite flying and suddenly a thunderstom broke out. A severe lightening flashed across the dense clouds. Suddenly Benjamin Franklin experienced severe shock in his hands and noticed there were sparks from the metal string. He panicked and left the kite, Soon he saw the ribbon in flames.

He realised that the dark clouds were laden with electrical chargeand the subsequent lightning produced heavy electric currentwhich passed through the metal string causing sparks. fortunately for him the silk ribbon he was holding was abad conductor of electricity and he dropped the kite well in time. He also realised that when ever lightening occurs, the electric current produced has the tendency to pass down to the earth through some medium. This gave birth to the invention of the lightning arrestors that are installed in tall buildings.

He thought that if a conducting medium is installed in tall buildings, it would attact the lightning current and pass it to the ground without afecting the building. All the modern day arrestors make use of the same principle.

What is solar enrgy?

2006-03-18T04:47:00.000-08:00

If any form of energy is available in abundance in India its solar energy. Now the concept of solar power plants is slowly catching up. The steam generated from the large sized solar heaterscan be used to actuate a steam turbine which generates electric power through generator. Recently the tourist island of Bangaram, in Laskshadweep Islands, has acquired a solar power plant. Hitherto, it had to depend solely on diesel power plants, for which diesel was being transported from the mainland at a high cost. The Bangalore based electronic division of BHEL unit had earlier installed a solar power plant of 10kw capacity. This wass upgraded recently to 50kw hybrid solar pwer plant to ensure full power supply needed for the island. BHEL has installed 8 such power plants till date.

Moon and the Gravitational force

2006-03-09T03:00:00.000-08:00

Have you ever wondered how the moon is able to hand in the sky like a giant balloon and why it is not pulled down by the gravitational force of the earth? After all, the earth has a powerful gravitational force sufficient to pull the moon downwards towards it. Considering the fact that the gravity on the moon is only one-sixth of that of the earth, it should have come crashing towards the earth long ago. Why then has this not happened? Isn't the earth pulling the moon with all its might towards it. In which case how does the moon resist it?

Though the moon appears to be stationery, it is, in fact, revolving round the earth in a steady orbit. As per Newton's law, every revolving object gives rise to a centrifugal force which tends to push the object radially outward from the centre of the revolution. The moon is revolving at a specific speed which creates a centrifugal force exactly equal and opposite to the pull of the earth. Thus the forces are balanced and the moon neither tens to move away from the earth, nor towards it. You might then wonder why the moon appears to be motionless! Objects closer to us appear to move more swiftly than when they are away from us. For instance, an aircraft while taking off seems to move very fast in the runway, but when it flies high in a clear sky, it appears to move slowly. So, it is no wonder the moon, which is 384400 km away from us, appears to be motionless, though it is revolving around us at a high speed.

What are Anagrams

2006-03-08T23:48:00.000-08:00

Alexander Graham Bell, who invented the telephone, was also a writer. Wanting to make sure that his writings would not be appreciated solely because he was famous, he chose an alias HA Largelamb by mixing the alphabets of his name, A Graham Bell (This is called creating an anagram)

King louis XII of France was so fond of anagrams that he appointed Thomas Billon as the royal anagramatist. His full time job was to convert the names of the court nobles into funny anagrams, to amuse the king.

The Smallest Country

2006-03-08T06:03:00.000-08:00

The Vatican is the smallest country in the world. It is an independent sovereign state within the bondaries of Rome, the capital of Italy. It became an independent state only after 1929. Right from inception, it has been the spiritual and administrative centre of the Roman Catholic Church. The city state has a daily newspaper, a railway station, and its own bank. It has an area of just 0.5 sq. km and a population of little over a thousand, though it attracts millions of visitors every year. The main attractions in the Vatican are the Michaelandgelo Frescoes in the Sistin Chapel and the imposing facade of St. Peter.